Graphene quantum dots as cysteine protease nanocarriers against stored grain insect pests.

Storing grains remain vulnerable to insect pest attack. The present study developed a biopesticide using biomolecules and their encapsulation in nanoparticles. A 25 kDa cysteine protease extracted from seeds of Albizia procera (ApCP) was encapsulated in graphene quantum dots (GQDs). The insecticidal activity of ApCP, with or without GQDs, against two stored grain insect pests, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius) was explored. Insects were exposed to three concentrations 7.0, 3.5 and 1.7 mg of ApCP per a gram of wheat flour and grains. The insecticidal activity of ApCP encapsulated with GQDs was improved compared to that of ApCP without GQDs for both insect pests. The number of eggs and larvae of T. castaneum was reduced by 49% and 86%, respectively. Larval mortality was increased to 72%, and adult eclosion of T. castaneum was reduced by 98% at a 7.0 mg/g concentration of ApCP with GQDs compared to that of ApCP without GQDs. Exposure to 7.0 mg/g ApCP with GQDs, the number of R. dominica eggs and larvae was reduced by 72% and 92% respectively, larval mortality was increased by 90%, and eclosion was reduced by 97%. The extraction, purification, characterization, quantification and encapsulation of ApCP with GQDs were also studied. Cysteine protease nanocarriers have the potential to control stored grain insect pests.

Immunosuppressive Yersinia Effector YopM Binds DEAD Box Helicase DDX3 to Control Ribosomal S6 Kinase in the Nucleus of Host Cells.

Yersinia outer protein M (YopM) is a crucial immunosuppressive effector of the plaque agent Yersinia pestis and other pathogenic Yersinia species. YopM enters the nucleus of host cells but neither the mechanisms governing its nucleocytoplasmic shuttling nor its intranuclear activities are known. Here we identify the DEAD-box helicase 3 (DDX3) as a novel interaction partner of Y. enterocolitica YopM and present the three-dimensional structure of a YopM:DDX3 complex. Knockdown of DDX3 or inhibition of the exportin chromosomal maintenance 1 (CRM1) increased the nuclear level of YopM suggesting that YopM exploits DDX3 to exit the nucleus via the CRM1 export pathway. Increased nuclear YopM levels caused enhanced phosphorylation of Ribosomal S6 Kinase 1 (RSK1) in the nucleus. In Y. enterocolitica infected primary human macrophages YopM increased the level of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) mRNA and this effect required interaction of YopM with RSK and was enhanced by blocking YopM's nuclear export. We propose that the DDX3/CRM1 mediated nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of YopM determines the extent of phosphorylation of RSK in the nucleus to control transcription of immunosuppressive cytokines.

S-glutathiolation impairs phosphoregulation and function of cardiac myosin-binding protein C in human heart failure.

Cardiac myosin-binding protein C (cMyBP-C) regulates actin-myosin interaction and thereby cardiac myocyte contraction and relaxation. This physiologic function is regulated by cMyBP-C phosphorylation. In our study, reduced site-specific cMyBP-C phosphorylation coincided with increased S-glutathiolation in ventricular tissue from patients with dilated or ischemic cardiomyopathy compared to nonfailing donors. We used redox proteomics, to identify constitutive and disease-specific S-glutathiolation sites in cMyBP-C in donor and patient samples, respectively. Among those, a cysteine cluster in the vicinity of the regulatory phosphorylation sites within the myosin S2 interaction domain C1-M-C2 was identified and showed enhanced S-glutathiolation in patients. In vitro S-glutathiolation of recombinant cMyBP-C C1-M-C2 occurred predominantly at Cys(249), which attenuated phosphorylation by protein kinases. Exposure to glutathione disulfide induced cMyBP-C S-glutathiolation, which functionally decelerated the kinetics of Ca(2+)-activated force development in ventricular myocytes from wild-type, but not those from Mybpc3-targeted knockout mice. These oxidation events abrogate protein kinase-mediated phosphorylation of cMyBP-C and therefore potentially contribute to the reduction of its phosphorylation and the contractile dysfunction observed in human heart failure.-Stathopoulou, K., Wittig, I., Heidler, J., Piasecki, A., Richter, F., Diering, S., van der Velden, J., Buck, F., Donzelli, S., Schröder, E., Wijnker, P. J. M., Voigt, N., Dobrev, D., Sadayappan, S., Eschenhagen, T., Carrier, L., Eaton, P., Cuello, F. S-glutathiolation impairs phosphoregulation and function of cardiac myosin-binding protein C in human heart failure.

Disseminated Tumor Cells Persist in the Bone Marrow of Breast Cancer Patients through Sustained Activation of the Unfolded Protein Response.

Disseminated tumor cells (DTC), which share mesenchymal and epithelial properties, are considered to be metastasis-initiating cells in breast cancer. However, the mechanisms supporting DTC survival are poorly understood. DTC extravasation into the bone marrow may be encouraged by low oxygen concentrations that trigger metabolic and molecular alterations contributing to DTC survival. Here, we investigated how the unfolded protein response (UPR), an important cytoprotective program induced by hypoxia, affects the behavior of stressed cancer cells. DTC cell lines established from the bone marrow of patients with breast cancer (BC-M1), lung cancer, (LC-M1), and prostate cancer (PC-E1) were subjected to hypoxic and hypoglycemic conditions. BC-M1 and LC-M1 exhibiting mesenchymal and epithelial properties adapted readily to hypoxia and glucose starvation. Upregulation of UPR proteins, such as the glucose-regulated protein Grp78, induced the formation of filamentous networks, resulting in proliferative advantages and sustained survival under total glucose deprivation. High Grp78 expression correlated with mesenchymal attributes of breast and lung cancer cells and with poor differentiation in clinical samples of primary breast and lung carcinomas. In DTCs isolated from bone marrow specimens from breast cancer patients, Grp78-positive stress granules were observed, consistent with the likelihood these cells were exposed to acute cell stress. Overall, our findings provide the first evidence that the UPR is activated in DTC in the bone marrow from cancer patients, warranting further study of this cell stress pathway as a predictive biomarker for recurrent metastatic disease.

Tuning IL-2 signaling by ADP-ribosylation of CD25.

Control of immunologic tolerance and homeostasis rely on Foxp3(+)CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) that constitutively express the high affinity receptor for Interleukin-2, CD25. Tregs proliferate in response to injections of IL-2/anti-IL-2 antibody complexes or low doses of IL-2. However, little is known about endogenous mechanisms that regulate the sensitivity of CD25 to signaling by IL-2. Here we demonstrate that CD25 is ADP-ribosylated at Arg35 in the IL-2 binding site by ecto-ADP-ribosyltransferase ARTC2.2, a toxin-related GPI-anchored ecto-enzyme. ADP-ribosylation inhibits binding of IL-2 by CD25, IL-2- induced phosphorylation of STAT5, and IL-2-dependent cell proliferation. Our study elucidates an as-yet-unrecognized mechanism to tune IL-2 signaling. This newly found mechanism might thwart Tregs at sites of inflammation and thereby permit a more potent response of activated effector T cells.

Identification and analysis of ADP-ribosylated proteins.

The analysis of ADP-ribosylated proteins is a challenging task, on the one hand because of the diversity of the target proteins and the modification sites, on the other hand because of the particular problems posed by the analysis of ADP-ribosylated peptides. ADP-ribosylated proteins can be detected in in vitro experiments after the incorporation of radioactively labeled or chemically modified ADP-ribose. Endogenously ADP-ribosylated proteins may be detected and enriched by antibodies directed against the ADP-ribosyl moiety or by ADP-ribosyl binding macro domains. The determination of the exact attachment site of the modification, which is a prerequisite for the understanding of the specificity of the various ADP-ribosyl transferases and the structural consequences of ADP-ribosylation, necessitates the proteolytic cleavage of the proteins. The resulting peptides can afterwards be enriched either by IMAC (using the affinity of the pyrophosphate group for heavy metal ions) or by immobilized boronic acid beads (using the affinity of the vicinal ribose hydroxy groups for boronic acid). The identification of the modified peptides usually requires tandem mass spectrometric measurements. Problems that hamper the mass spectrometric analysis by collision-induced decay (CID) can be circumvented either by the application of different fragmentation techniques (electron transfer or electron capture dissociation; ETD or ECD) or by enzymatic cleavage of the ADP-ribosyl group to ribosyl-phosphate.

Cell death triggered by Yersinia enterocolitica identifies processing of the proinflammatory signal adapter MyD88 as a general event in the execution of apoptosis.

Many pathogenic microorganisms have evolved tactics to modulate host cell death or survival pathways for establishing infection. The enteropathogenic bacterium Yersinia enterocolitica deactivates TLR-induced signaling pathways, which triggers apoptosis in macrophages. In this article, we show that Yersinia-induced apoptosis of human macrophages involves caspase-dependent cleavage of the TLR adapter protein MyD88. MyD88 was also cleaved when apoptosis was mediated by overexpression of the Toll-IL-1R domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-ß in epithelial cells. The caspase-processing site was mapped to aspartate-135 in the central region of MyD88. MyD88 is consequently split by caspases in two fragments, one harboring the death domain and the other the Toll-IL-1R domain. Caspase-3 was identified as the protease that conferred the cleavage of MyD88 in in vitro caspase assays. In line with a broad role of caspase-3 in the execution of apoptosis, the processing of MyD88 was not restricted to Yersinia infection and to proapoptotic Toll-IL-1R domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-ß signaling, but was also triggered by staurosporine treatment. The cleavage of MyD88 therefore seems to be a common event in the advanced stages of apoptosis, when caspase-3 is active. We propose that the processing of MyD88 disrupts its scaffolding function and uncouples the activation of TLR and IL-1Rs from the initiation of proinflammatory signaling events. The disruption of MyD88 may consequently render dying cells less sensitive to proinflammatory stimuli in the execution phase of apoptosis. The cleavage of MyD88 could therefore be a means of conferring immunogenic tolerance to apoptotic cells to ensure silent, noninflammatory cell demise.

Proteome analysis of the effects of all-trans retinoic acid on human germ cell tumor cell lines.

We analysed the effects of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) on proliferation and changes in the global proteome of the nullipotent human embryonal carcinoma cell line 2102Ep and the pluripotent cell line NTERA2 cl.D1 (NT2). Differentially expressed proteins were assessed by 2D-PAGE and mass spectrometry, followed by verification and analysis of protein modifications of proteins of the retinoid pathway. We established a proteome map of the germ cell tumor (GCT) cell line NT2 showing neuronal differentiation under ATRA treatment for 7days. Using bioinformatic analyses, we identified functional groups of altered proteins and potentially involved pathways, of which changes to the organization of the cytoskeleton and anti-apoptotic effects were the most prominent. Changes observed in the expression of factors involved in the retinoid pathway under ATRA, namely an upregulation of CRBP and CRABP2, were also reflected in GCT tissues of different histologies, providing further insight into factors involved in the differentiation of these pluripotent tumors. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Treatment of NT2 germ cell tumor cells with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is a model to investigate differentiation. We analysed differentially expressed proteins by 2D-PAGE and mass spectrometry and provide a proteome map of NT2 cells under 7days of ATRA. By bioinformatic analyses, functional groups of proteins and involved pathways like changes to the cytoskeleton and anti-apoptotic effects were identified. Factors involved in the retinoid pathway, in particular upregulation of CRBP, CRABP1 and CRABP2, also showed differential expression in tumors with different histological subtypes, which provides insight into gene regulation under induced and spontaneous differentiation in germ cell tumors.

Tumor-associated Neu5Ac-Tn and Neu5Gc-Tn antigens bind to C-type lectin CLEC10A (CD301, MGL).

In human tumors, glycoproteins often exhibit abnormal glycosylation patterns, e.g. certain Lewis structures, TF antigen, Tn antigen and/or their sialylated forms, creating additional binding sites for glycoreceptors. In the present study, we have analyzed the carbohydrate specificity of the C-type lectin CLEC10A using glycan profiling by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In addition to the known ligands, we show binding to two tumor-associated antigens, namely Neu5Acα2,6-Tn and Neu5Gcα2,6-Tn, with an affinity of CLEC10A in the micromolar range. Detailed analyses of the glycan-lectin interactions were carried out by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and saturation transfer difference (STD) NMR. CLEC10A binds Neu5Acα2,6-Tn and Neu5Gcα2,6-Tn with dissociation constants of 297 and 80 µM, respectively, as determined by SPR. Comparison of the STD nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) binding epitopes of Tn and Neu5Acα2,6-Tn revealed a constant binding mode of the N-acetylgalactosamine moiety. This finding is in good agreement with binding studies of CLEC10A transfectomas, which show a well-defined interaction of transmembrane CLEC10A with 6-sialylated-Tn structures. Since both Neu5Acα2,6-Tn and Neu5Gcα2,6-Tn together with the previously known Tn antigen are expressed in human tumors such as mammary carcinoma, the interaction with CLEC10A expressed by macrophages and dendritic cells could be of major functional significance in tumor progression.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of crotamine, a myotoxic polypeptide from the Brazilian snake Crotalus durissus terrificus.

Crotamine, a highly basic myotoxic polypeptide (molecular mass 4881 Da) isolated from the venom of the Brazilian rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus, causes skeletal muscle contraction and spasms, affects the functioning of voltage-sensitive sodium channels by inducing sodium influx and possesses antitumour activity, suggesting potential pharmaceutical applications. Crotamine was purified from C. durissus terrificus venom; the crystals diffracted to 1.9 Å resolution and belonged to the orthorhombic space group I2(1)2(1)2(1) or I222, with unit-cell parameters a = 67.75, b = 74.4, c = 81.01 Å. The self-rotation function indicated that the asymmetric unit contained three molecules. However, structure determination by molecular replacement using NMR-determined coordinates was unsuccessful and a search for potential derivatives has been initiated.

Monoclonal antibodies for the identification and purification of vNAR domains and IgNAR immunoglobulins from the horn shark Heterodontus francisci.

In addition to conventional antibodies, cartilaginous fish have evolved a distinctive type of immunoglobulin, designated as IgNAR, which lacks the light polypeptide chains and is composed entirely by heavy chains. IgNAR molecules can be manipulated by molecular engineering to produce the variable domain of a single heavy chain polypeptide (vNARs). These, together with the VHH camel domains, constitute the smallest naturally occurring domains able to recognize an antigen. Their special features, such as small size, long extended finger-like CDR3, and thermal and chemical stability, make them suitable candidates for biotechnological purposes. Here we describe the generation of two mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), MAb 370-12 and MAb 533-10, that both specifically react with vNAR domains of the horn shark Heterodontus francisci. While the former recognizes a broad spectrum of recombinant vNAR proteins, the latter is more restricted. MAb 370-12 precipitated a single band from whole shark serum, which was identified as IgNAR by mass spectrometry. Additionally, we used MAb 370-12 to follow the IgNAR-mediated immune response of sharks during immunization protocols with two different antigens (complete cells and a synthethic peptide), thus corroborating that MAb 370-12 recognizes both isolated vNAR domains and whole IgNAR molecules. Both MAbs represent an affordable molecular, biochemical, and biotechnological tool in the field of shark single-domain antibodies.

Strategies for the identification of arginine ADP-ribosylation sites.

Mono-ADP-ribosylation of arginine is a protein modification in eukaryotic cells regulating protein activity and thereby influencing signal transduction and metabolism. Due to the complexity of the modification and the fragmentation pattern in MS/MS CID experiments, the identification of ADP-ribosylation sites in complex mixtures is difficult. Here we describe a two-step strategy, in the first step enriching and identifying potentially ADP-ribosylated proteins and in the second step identifying the sites of modification by a combination of LC/MS-, LC/MS(E) (MS at elevated fragmentation energy)- and LC/MS/MS experiments. Using this technique we could identify two ADP-ribosylation sites in TNFα digested with trypsin, protease V8 and both proteases and thereby demonstrate the specific ADP-ribosylation of TNFα. In complex samples the detection of ADP-ribosylated peptides requires further enrichment of the modified peptides. We tested various materials routinely used for the isolation of phosphopeptides. IMAC as well as TiO(2) chromatography were successfully applied for the selective enrichment of ADP-ribosylated model peptides.

Tandem affinity depletion: a combination of affinity fractionation and immunoaffinity depletion allows the detection of low-abundance components in the complex proteomes of body fluids.

Protein biomarker discovery in the low concentration range of human body fluids requires the enrichment of the proteins of interest. Here we report on a tandem affinity strategy: In the first step, we isolated a human plasma glyco-subproteome of healthy individuals by wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) lectin affinity chromatography. In the second step, the proteins of this subproteome were used to raise antibodies in llama (Lama glama). The heavy-chain fraction of the llama antibodies was used to deplete from the WGA lectin binding fraction all proteins normally found in human plasma. In this way, we selectively enriched the glycoprotein, CEA, a known cancer marker which had been spiked into normal plasma. As a proof of concept, we applied this method to the analysis of plasma sample from colon cancer patients. We could demonstrate the selective enrichment of CEA by a factor of 600-800.

Discovery of a novel unfolded protein response phenotype of cancer stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow of breast cancer patients.

Metastases arise from disseminated tumor cells (DTC) that colonize secondary organs. However, DTC survival strategies to start metastatic outgrowth are unclear. The hostile (hypoxic, hypoglycemic) microenvironmental conditions of the bone marrow serve as an ideal model environment for investigation of DTC survival strategies under environmental stress. We investigated the breast cancer DTC cell line BC-M1 established from the bone marrow of a cancer patient by 2-D DIGE and MS analysis. We observed specific overexpression of the unfolded protein response (UPR) proteins Grp78, Grp94, and protein disulfide-isomerase in breast, lung, and prostate cancer DTC cell lines from the bone marrow. The UPR contributes to survival under adverse environmental conditions including chemotherapy. We show in cellular models that Grp78 expression of the UPR is regulated by tyrosine 1248 of ErbB-2. The breast cancer DTC cell lines shared stem/progenitor cell cancer phenotypes (CD44(high)/CD24(low)). Immunocytochemical staining of bone marrow samples from breast cancer patients confirmed in situ high expression of Grp78 and Grp94 in DTC of breast cancer patients, indicating the potential of both proteins as novel markers for DTC detection. Our results suggest the presence of a previously not recognized stress resistant DTC population that combines stem/progenitor attributes with an UPR phenotype.

The giant extracellular matrix-binding protein of Staphylococcus epidermidis mediates biofilm accumulation and attachment to fibronectin.

Virulence of nosocomial pathogen Staphylococcus epidermidis is essentially related to formation of adherent biofilms, assembled by bacterial attachment to an artificial surface and subsequent production of a matrix that mediates interbacterial adhesion. Growing evidence supports the idea that proteins are functionally involved in S. epidermidis biofilm accumulation. We found that in S. epidermidis 1585v overexpression of a 460 kDa truncated isoform of the extracellular matrix-binding protein (Embp) is necessary for biofilm formation. Embp is a giant fibronectin-binding protein harbouring 59 Found In Various Architectures (FIVAR) and 38 protein G-related albumin-binding (GA) domains. Studies using defined Embp-positive and -negative S. epidermidis strains proved that Embp is sufficient and necessary for biofilm formation. Further data showed that the FIVAR domains of Embp mediate binding of S. epidermidis to solid-phase attached fibronectin, constituting the first step of biofilm formation on conditioned surfaces. The binding site in fibronectin was assigned to the fibronectin domain type III12. Embp-mediated biofilm formation also protected S. epidermidis from phagocytosis by macrophages. Thus, Embp is a multifunctional cell surface protein that mediates attachment to host extracellular matrix, biofilm accumulation and escape from phagocytosis, and therefore is well suited for promoting implant-associated infections.

Two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis of a cell line derived from a breast cancer micrometastasis revealed a stem/ progenitor cell protein profile.

Dissemination of primary cancer cells to distant sites is an early event in breast cancer. These cells can invade the bone marrow, rest there, and many years later disseminated tumor cells (DTC) can grow out to form overt metastases. Epithelium specific cytokeratins are commonly used as marker proteins for sensitive detection of metastatic lesions. However, due to difficulties in the detection of DTC, the question arises if DTC necessarily have the same protein expression profile as advanced tumors. On that account, we analyzed the previously uncharacterized breast cancer DTC cell line BC-M1 by 2-D DIGE. Special protein concentration and purification protocols for 2-DE were developed which resulted in high recovery rates and increased display of alkaline proteins. A broad range reference map of metastasis relevant proteins was compiled including the cytokeratins 5, 7, 8, 17, 18, and 19 and several classes of cytoskeleton proteins involved in metastasis like ezrin, gelsolin, vinculin, or vimentin. BC-M1 shows the rare and highly metastatic vimentin/cytokeratin 5 positive and cytokeratin 8/18 negative breast cancer phenotype and expresses Her-2, which is also found in stem cells/progenitor cells of primary tumors. Supported by the detection of several other epithelium-derived proteins, the example BC-M1 indicates that the protein expression profile of DTC might be reminiscent of the expression profile of the early tumor, which differs from the advanced tumor. Hence, DTC from breast cancer patients' bone marrow expressed cytokeratin 5, which further supports our hypothesis.

Prostate specific antigen: one out of five disulfide bridges determines inactivation by reduction.

PSA (kallikrein hK3) proteolytic activity proved highly sensitive to reducing agents like dithiothreitol (DTT) and dihydrolipoic acid while beta-mercaptoethanol and glutathione were less effective. Ascorbate exhibited no significant inhibitory potential. Loss of activity by reduction could be readily reversed by re-oxidation. Inactivation was associated with the reduction of two out of five conserved disulfides. Mass spectrometry of differentially modified cysteines, and Edman degradation analyses identified Cys 22-Cys 157 and Cys 191-Cys 220 as DDT-sensitive. The highly homologous porcine pancreatic kallikrein (pK1) showed a completely different response: Even at 20 mM DDT, no inactivation was seen; and in this case, only one of the five disulfides (Cys 22-Cys 157) was opened. This indicated that it is the accessabilty of the Cys 191-Cys 220 disulfide near the catalytic serine 195 that decides on the ability of reductants to inactivate the proteolytic activity of PSA. A structural basis for this interpretation is provided when the two homologous proteins were compared with respect to the threedimensional architecture around the crucial disulfide Cys 191-Cys 220 where in the case of PK1, but not in PSA, the phenylalanine-residue (Phe 149) is in an interfering position.

Substrate specificity of rat DESC4, a type II transmembrane serine protease.

Type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs) are involved in important physiological processes, such as pro-hormone processing, cellular signaling, host immune defense, and cancer development. The diversity of functions is reflected by the multidomain architecture of these proteases, which are composed of a variety of functional domains in addition to the catalytic domain. Recently, we identified rat DESC4, a member of the HAT/DESC1-like subfamily of TTSPs. Intriguingly, DESC4 gene expression is confined to few tissues including gustatory papillae. In the current publication we present the purification of the catalytic domain of recombinant rat DESC4. Subsequently, the catalytic domain was subjected to a refolding procedure. During refolding we observed endogenous catalytic activity leading to smaller fragments, which were analyzed by peptide sequencing. The identified cleavage-sites are typical for trypsin-like serine proteases. For further analyses a homology-based model of the DESC4 catalytic domain was generated enabling us to investigate protease-substrate interaction in more detail.

Comparative analysis of the venom proteomes of Vipera ammodytes ammodytes and Vipera ammodytes meridionalis.

The venom proteomics of Vipera ammodytes ammodytes and Vipera ammodytes meridionalis, snakes of public health significance and the most poisonous reptiles in Europe, were analyzed by FPLC, 2-D electrophoresis, sequence analysis, and MS/MS. FPLC analysis showed the presence of l-amino acid oxidase, monomeric and heterodimeric phospholipases A2, C-type lectin protein, and proteinases in the venom of V. a. ammodytes. Representatives of the same protein families were found in the venom of the other subspecies, V. a. meridionalis. N-terminally identical PLA2 neurotoxins were identified in both venoms. Difference in the PLA2 compositions of the venoms was also observed: a monomeric protein with phospholipase A2 activity, identical in the first 20 amino acid residues to the catalitically inactive acidic component of the heterodimeric PLA2 present in both venoms, was found only in that of V. a. meridionalis. Probably, this protein represents an intermediate form of the two components of the heterodimer. 2-D electrophoresis and MS/MS analysis showed that the two venoms shared a number of protein families: monomeric and heterodimeric Group II PLA2s, serine proteinases, Group I, II, and III metalloproteinases, l-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins, disintegrins, and growth factors. Totally, 38 venom components of the V. a. ammodytes, belonging to 9 protein families, and 67 components of the V. a. meridionalis venom belonging to 8 protein families were identified. The venom proteome of V. a. ammodytes shows larger diversity of proteins (139) in comparison to that of V. a. meridionalis (104 proteins). Most of the proteins are homologues of known representatives of the respective protein families. The protein compositions explain clinical effects of the V. ammodytes snakebites, such as difficulties in the breathing, paralysis, apoptosis, cloting disorders, hemorrhage, and tissue necrosis. The lists of secreted proteins by the two vipers can be used for further study of structure-function relationships in the toxins and for prediction and treatment of snakebite consequences.

Prion protein regulates glutamate-dependent lactate transport of astrocytes.

Prion-related protein (PrP) is a neural cell adhesion molecule involved in neurite outgrowth, neuronal survival, and synaptic function. In search of novel binding partners for PrP, we identified the alpha2/beta2-Na+/K+-ATPase and showed that this astroglial ATPase interacts directly with the immunoglobulin superfamily adhesion molecule basigin. In cultured astrocytes, PrP is involved in regulating lactate transport via the astroglial monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) and in conjunction with alpha2/beta2-ATPase and basigin. Lactate transport via MCT1 is glutamate dependent and regulated by glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2)-containing AMPA receptors with which PrP interacts. The functional interplay between PrP, GluR2, alpha2/beta2-ATPase, basigin, and MCT1 in regulating lactate transport of astrocytes may be functional in the metabolic cross talk between astrocytes and neurons, most likely under stress.